Vitamins and Minerals
by Harri Hemilä
Chapter in: Common Cold (eds.
Eccles & Weber) / Birkhauser published in 2009
Version Aug 28,
2015
Abstract of the chapter
Taking vitamins and minerals to fight the common cold is popular in
western countries and thus it is important to find out whether or not
they are effective. A large number of trials have found that regular
vitamin C supplementation shortens the duration of colds, and is
probably beneficial when administered therapeutically starting soon
after the onset of symptoms. Zinc lozenges have reduced the duration of
common cold symptoms when the total daily zinc doses were over 70 mg.
Consequently, both vitamin C and zinc have the potential to become
options for treating
the common cold, but more research is needed to determine optimal doses
and treatment strategies. The prophylactic effect of vitamins and
minerals has also been examined in several trials. Vitamin C has no
preventive effect in the general community, but may reduce the
incidence of respiratory symptoms in restricted population groups such
as people under acute physical stress and people with a particularly
low dietary intake of
vitamin C. There is no evidence that vitamin E supplementation prevents
colds in middle-aged people. Nevertheless, the effects of vitamin E in
elderly males have been found to be heterogeneous, and further studies
are warranted in elderly people. β-Carotene has been promoted for
improving the immune system, but there is no evidence that it is
effective against colds. The use of multivitamin and multimineral
combinations against respiratory tract infections in elderly people has
been studied in a number of trials, but a nearly uniform lack of
efficacy has been found. Vitamin D and folic acid have been
constituents of multivitamin supplements, and the absence of benefits
of these supplements implies
that increasing the intake of vitamin D or folic acid in elderly people
would not have substantial preventive effects against respiratory
infections.
The book is available
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Reference list with
links to papers available through the net
This
document contains links to the fulltexts or abstracts of the references
that are available via the internet.
Some of the
publications are located at publisher's pages and require permissions
to be reached, but several are freely available.
This
file will be updated so that new controlled trials and other relevant
studies on the substances discussed in this chapter will be appended
at the end of the file.
For
a more extensive list of references to the vitamin C and the common
cold trials, see references
for
the
Cochrane
Review
(ref.
24
below).
If
you find errors in these links, such as an outdated address,
please
inform: harri.hemila@helsinki.fi
Ref.
no.
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Dis
27:
358
3 Millen
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Am
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Assoc
104:
942
4 Pauling (1971)
Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 68: 2678
PubMedC
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5 Pauling (1971)
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(1942)
JAMA
120:
1268
OtherSource
7 Ritzel
G
(1961)
[In
German]
Helv
Med
Acta
28:
63
7 Translation
8 Hess (1920) Scurvy: Past and Present
8 Digitalized version via
Cornell Library (search book author=Hess)
8 Hess
(1920)
pages
88
and
99
9 Robertson
(1934)
Medicine
13:
190
10 Perla
(1937)
Part
I.
Arch
Pathol
23:
543
10 Perla
(1937)
Part
II.
Arch
Pathol
23:
683
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(1942)
J
Hygiene
42:
1
OtherSource
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in
BMJ
(1942)
12 Comment
by
Authors
in
BMJ
(1942)
13 Hemilä (2007) J
R Soc Med 100: 495
13 Manuscript
14 Hemilä
(2006)
Do
vitamins
C
and
E
affect
respiratory
infections? pp
11-16, 35-51
14 Book version available at: Amazon
Barnes
&
Noble Foyles.co.uk
WHSmith.co.uk
Buchwelt.de
15 Bartley
(1953)
p
43
16 Mason
(1997)
Chem
Soc
Rev
26:
29
16 PDF version
16 Links
to
other
biographies
on
Linus
Pauling
17 Pauling (1970) Vitamin C and the Common Cold
17 Available at: Alibris1
Alibris2
Alibris3
17 Available at: Amazon1
Amazon2
Amazon3
17 Available at: BarnesNoble
17 Links
to
book
reviews
17 A short
background to the book
18 Pauling (1976) Vitamin C, the Common Cold, and the Flu
18 Available at: Alibris
18 Available at: Amazon
18 Available at: BarnesNoble1
BarnesNoble2
BarnesNoble3
18 Links
to
book
reviews
19 Hemilä (1992) Br J
Nutr 67: 3
OtherSource
19 Manuscript
with
links
to
the
references
20 Himmelstein
(1998) J Exercise Physiology online 1(2; July)
OtherSource
21 van Straten (2002)
Adv Ther 19: 151
22 Hemilä
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22 Manuscript
with links to the references
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22 Manuscript of
reply with links to the refrences
23 Briggs
(1984)
In:
Recent
Vitamin
Research.
pp
39-82
24 Hemilä
(2007) Cochrane Database Syst Rev
24 HTML
version
24 Summary of the Cochrane review in PloS Medicine
24 List of
references with weblinks
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25 Manuscript
with
links
to
references
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(2004)
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Afr
J
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29 Moolla
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31 discussion:
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32 Schachter
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Ann
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146
32 PubMed
abstract
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Arch
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Adolesc
Med
151:
367
34 Tecklenburg
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35 Charleston
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299:
1401
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Br
J
Prev
Soc
Med
30:
193
37 Elwood (1976)
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Br
J
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Soc
Med
31:
189
39 Tyrrell
(1977)
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(1972)
Can
Med
Assoc
J
107:
503
41 correction
(1973)
108:
133
41 correction
(1973)
108:
492
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(1975)
Can
Med
Assoc
J
112:
823
43 Ludvigsson
(1977)
Scand
J
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Dis
9:
91
44 Hemilä (1999)
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44 Manuscript
with links to references
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N
Engl
J
Med
290:
6 OtherSource
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[In
Spanish]
Rev
Med
Chil
112:
871
46 Translation
47 Karlowski
(1975)
JAMA
231:
1038
47 PubMed abstract
48 Hemilä
(1996) J Clin Epidemiol 49: 1079
48 Manuscript
with
links
to
the
references
48 Comments
Reply to
the comments Reply OtherSource
49 Hemilä
(1997)
Int
J
Vitam
Nutr
Res
67:
329
49 Manuscript
with links to references
49 PubMed Abstract
50 Anderson
(1974)
Can
Med
Assoc
J
111:
31
51 Padayatty
(2004)
Ann
Intern
Med
140:
533
52 Padayatty
(2006) CMAJ 174: 937
53 Rivers
(1987)
Ann
NY
Acad
Sci
498:
445
53 see also: Safety
of
Vitamin
C:
Urban
Legends
54 Hathcock
(2005)
Am
J
Clin
Nutr
81:
736
55 Gotzsche
(1989)
Lancet
2:
1039
55 Gotzsche refers to: Braenden
1973
ch
(8
KB) Braenden
1973
bm
(47
KB)
56 Thomas
(1978)
Clin
Exp
Immunol
32:
370
57 Beisel (1982)
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58 Gross
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59 Jariwalla
(1996)
Subcell
Biochem
25:
215
59 View
via
Google
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Rev
65:
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61 Akaike (1996) Proc
Natl Acad Sci USA 93: 2448
62 Peterhans
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J
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127:
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63 Akaike (2001) Rev Med
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64 Snelgrove (2006)
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65 Castro (2006)
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66 Hemilä
(2006)
Do
vitamins
C
and
E
affect
respiratory
infections? pp 5-10,
105-131
66 Book version, see ref. 14
66 Chapters available as HTML texts:
66 Vitamin
C
and
the
immune
system
66 Vitamin
C
metabolism
during
infections
66 Vitamin
C
and animal infections
67 Witt
(1992)
J
Nutr
122:
766
68 Packer (1997) J
Sports Sci 15: 353
69 Hemilä
(1996)
Nutrition
12:
804
69 Manuscript
with
links
to
references
70 Chalmers
(1975)
Am
J
Med
58:
532
70 PubMed abstract
71 Dykes
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JAMA
231:
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71 PubMed abstract
72 Hemilä
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J
Am
Coll
Nutr
14:
116
73 Hemilä
(2008)
Chalmers'
meta-analysis
1975
74 Hemilä
(2008)
The
Dykes
and
Meier
review
1975
75 Pauling
(1976)
Part
I.
Medical
Tribune
17(12):
18
76 Pauling
(1976)
Part
II.
Medical
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37
77 Chalmers
(1996)
Dissent
to
the
preceding
article
by
H.
Hemilä.
J
Clin
Epidemiol
49:
1085
78 Hemilä
(1996) To the dissent by Thomas Chalmers. J Clin Epidemiol 49: 1087
78 Manuscript
79 Hemilä
(2008) The most influential trial on vitamin C and the common cold:
Karlowski et al. 1975
80 Truswell
(1986)
N
Engl
J
Med
315:
709 OtherSource
81 Kleijnen
(1989)
[in
Dutch]
Ned
Tijdschr
Geneeskd
133:
1532
81 Translation
to
English
82 Hemilä
(2008)
Truswell’s
mini-review
1986
83 Hemilä
(2008)
Kleijnen’s
meta-analysis
1989
84 Hemilä
(2008)
Pauling's
meta-analyses
1971a,b
85 Meydani
(1995)
Am
J
Clin
Nutr
62:
1462S
86 Moriguchi
(2000)
Vitam
Horm
59:
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86 PubMed
abstract
87 Baehner
(1977)
Blood
50:
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88 Prasad
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90 Taylor
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91 Garg (2004)
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92 Graat
(2002)
JAMA
288:
715
93 Meydani
(2004)
JAMA
292:
828
93 correction
(2004)
292:
1305
93 correction
(2007)
297:
1882
93 discussion
(2004)
292:
2834
94 Hemilä
(2005) Am J Clin Nutr 82: 1141
95 Hamer
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JAMA
292:
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96 ATBC
Study
(1994)
N
Engl
J
Med
330:
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96 ATBC
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96 PDF
version Another
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(2002) Epidemiology 13: 32
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99 Hemilä (2004)
Chest 125: 557
100 Hemilä
(2003)
Med
Sci
Sports
Exerc
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1815
PubMed
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102 Bendich
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J
Nutr
119:
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(1999)
Proc
Nutr
Soc
58:
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104 Omenn
(1998)
Annu
Rev
Public
Health
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105 Chandra
RK
(1992)
Lancet
340:
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105 PubMed
abstract
105 Chandra's paper has had a great impact; it has been cited over 340
times by July 2009 (Web of Science).
105 Documents discussing Chandra's fabrication can be reached through: Chandra
106 Carpenter
(2003)
Lancet
361:
2247
107 White
(2004)
BMJ
328:
67
BMJ server
107 correction
(2004)
328:
257
BMJ server
108 Smith
(2005)
BMJ
331:
288
BMJ server
109 Chavance
(1993)
Int
J
Vitam
Nutr
Res
63:
11
109 PubMed
abstract
110 Girodon (1997) Ann
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111 Girodon
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Arch
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Med
159:
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112 Barringer
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Ann
Intern
Med
138:
365
113 Avenell
(2005)
BMJ
331:
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(2007)
J
Am
Geriatr
Soc
55:
35
114 correction
(2007)
55:
478
114 discussion
(2007)
55:
1311
OtherSource
115 Fischer
Walker
(2004)
Annu
Rev
Nutr
24:
255
116 Aggarwal (2007)
Pediatrics 119: 1120
117 Coles
(2007) Am J Clin Nutr 86: 397
118 Kurugöl
(2006) Acta Paediatr 95: 1175
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(2007)
Pediatr
Int
49:
842
120 Eby
(1984) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 25: 20
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121 Prasad
(2008)
Mol
Med
14:
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125 Berg (2001)
J Interferon Cytokine Res 21: 471
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(1996)
Med
Hypotheses
46:
295
127 Novick
(1997)
Med
Hypotheses
49:
347
128 Godfrey (1988)
Antimicrob Agents Chemother 32: 605
128 Godfrey (1988) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 32: 605
129 Eby (1988)
Antimicrob Agents Chemother 32: 606
129 Eby (1988) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 32: 606
130 Martin (1988)
Antimicrob Agents Chemother 32: 608
130 Martin (1988) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 32: 608
131 Eby
(1997) J Antimicrob Chemother 40: 483
131 Eby
(1997) J Antimicrob Chemother 40: 483
131 Eby
(1997) J Antimicrob Chemother 40: 483
132 Bakar
(1999) Chem Speciat Bioavail 11: 95
132 Abstract
133 Eby
(2004) Biosci Rep 24: 23
133 Eby
(2004) Biosci Rep 24: 23
134 Smith
(1989) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 33: 646
134 Smith
(1989) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 33: 646
135 Godfrey
(1992)
J
Int
Med
Res
20:
234
135 PubMed
abstract
136 Prasad
(2008)
J
Infect
Dis
197:
795
136 Prasad
(2008)
J
Infect
Dis
197:
795
137 Petrus
(1998)
Curr
Ther
Res
59:
595
137 Petrus
(1998)
Curr
Ther
Res
59:
595
138 Turner (2000) Clin
Infect Dis 31: 1202
138 discussion
in:
2001;32:
1520
139 Mossad
(1996)
Ann
Intern
Med
125:
81
139 PubMed
140 Prasad
(2000)
Ann
Intern
Med
133:
245
140 Prasad
(2000) Ann Intern Med 133: 245
141 Douglas (1987) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 31: 1263
141 Douglas
(1987)
Antimicrob
Agents
Chemother
31:
1263
141 Douglas (1987) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 31: 1263
142 Macknin
(1998)
JAMA
279:
1962
142 PubMed abstract
143 Weismann
(1990)
Dan
Med
Bull
37:
279
143 PubMed
abstract
144 Zarembo
(1992)
J
Pharm
Sci
81:
128
144 PubMed
abstract
145 Al-Nakib (1987) J Antimicrob Chemother 20: 893
145 Al-Nakib
(1987)
J
Antimicrob
Chemother
20:
893
145 PubMed abstract
145 Another
report of the same trial: (1991) J Psychopharmacology "Zinc
[lozenges] removed the cold-induced performance impairment"
145 Another
report of the same trial: (1991) J Psychopharmacology "Zinc
[lozenges] removed the cold-induced performance impairment"
146 Farr (1987) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 31: 1183
146 Farr
(1987) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 31: 1183
146 Farr (1987) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 31: 1183
147 Simkin
PA
(1976)
Lancet
2:
539
147 PubMed abstract
148 Prasad (1978) JAMA 240: 2166
148 Prasad
(1978)
JAMA
240:
2166
148 PubMed abstract
149 Hoffman
(1988)
Gastroenterology
94:
508
149 PubMed abstract
150 Samman
(1987)
Med
J
Aust
146:
246
150 PubMed
abstract
There are further reports than refs. 147-150 about therapeutic usage of high doses of zinc.
150 mg/day of zinc has been administered for therapeutic purposes over months, in some cases up to a few years:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4097278
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4097279
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4163308
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6019319
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1991851/
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1991648/
These papers did not report any important adverse effects of zinc in the doses used.
151 Jafek
(2004)
Am
J
Rhinol
18:
137
151 PubMed
152 Alexander
(2006)
Laryngoscope
116:
217
152 PubMed
152 discussion:
(2006)
116:
1720
152 PubMed
152 discussion:
(2006)
116:
1721
152 PubMed
152 discussion:
(2006)
116:
1722
153 Jackson
(1997)
Arch
Intern
Med
157:
2373
153 PubMed
154 Jackson
(2000)
J
Nutr
130(5S
Suppl):
1512S
154 PubMed
155 Thompson
(1994)
BMJ
309:
1351
BMJ server
156 Caruso (2007) Clin
Infect Dis 45: 569
156 see problems of the Caruso review: http://www.mv.helsinki.fi/home/hemila/H33.pdf
157 Chalmers
(1981)
Control
Clin
Trials
2:
31
158 Higgins (2008)
Cochrane Handbook Sect 8.3.3.
159 Balk
(2002)
JAMA
287:
2973
160 Glasziou
(2007)
BMJ
334:
349
BMJ server
161 Eby (2008) Clin Infect
Dis 46: 483
162 AMA (1987) JAMA 257: 1929
162 AMA
(1987)
JAMA
257:
1929
162 Extract
163 Caruso (2005) Clin
Infect Dis 40: 807
164 Hemilä (2005) Clin
Infect Dis 41: 762
165 Richards
(1988) Soc Stud Sci 18: 653
166 Richards (1991) Vitamin C and Cancer: Medicine or Politics?
166 available at: Alibris
Amazon
BarnesNoble
InformaWorld
166 book review: Herxheimer
(1991)
BMJ
166 book review: Smith
(1992)
Postgrad
Med
J
68:
307
167 Galloway (1991)
Nature 353: 125
168 Segerstråle
(1992)
Science
255:
613
169 Huxtable
(1992)
Trends
Pharmacol
Sci
13:
82
170 Goodwin
(1998) Arch Intern Med 158: 2187
170 PubMed
171 Vandenbroucke
(2001)
Ann
Intern
Med
135:
507
172 Goodwin (1981) Persp Biol Med 31: 78
172 PubMed
abstract
173 Goodwin
(1984)
JAMA
251:
2387
Extract
174 Barber
(1961)
Science
134:
596
175 Gonzales
(1995)
Lancet
345:
665
Trials and meta-analyses on the topics
discussed in this chapter published after the book was published.
These new studies are not commented on here.
This is simply of list of the trials that have been published after the
book.
This list is updated regularly, but not very frequently.
2009
Vitamin D and the common cold (RCT)
Li-Ng M, Aloia JF, Pollack S, Cunha BA, Mikhail M, Yeh J, Berbari N
A randomized controlled trial of vitamin D3 supplementation for the
prevention of symptomatic upper respiratory tract infections.
Epidemiol Infect. 2009;137:1396-404
PubMed
DOI
Zinc and the common cold (RCT)
Vakili R et al.
Effects of Zinc Supplementation in
Occurrence and Duration of Common Cold in School Aged Children during
Cold Season: a Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Trial
Iranian J Medicine 2009;19:376-380
Publisher
Other
source
2010
Zinc and the common cold
(meta-analysis)
Eby GA 3rd
Zinc lozenges as cure for the common cold--a review and hypothesis.
Med Hypotheses. 2010;74:482-92.
PubMed
DOI
Other
source
beta-Carotene and the common cold (RCT)
Hemilä H
The effect of β-carotene on common cold incidence is modified by age
and smoking: evidence against a uniform effect in a nutrient–disease
relationship
Nutrition and Dietary Supplements 2010;2:117-124
Link
2011
Vitamin C and the common cold (RCT)
Constantini NW, Dubnov-Raz G, Eyal BB, Berry EM, Cohen AH, Hemilä H
The effect of vitamin C on upper respiratory infections in adolescent
swimmers: a randomized trial.
Eur J Pediatr 2011;170:59-63
PubMed
DOI
Zinc and the common cold
(meta-analysis)
Singh M, Das RR
Zinc for the common cold
Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011:CD001364
DOI
Cochrane
See problems of the review:
Feedback
Zinc and the common cold
(meta-analysis)
Hemilä H
Zinc Lozenges May Shorten the Duration of Colds: a Systematic Review
Open Respir Med J 2011;5:51-8
Publisher
PMC
2012
Zinc and the common cold
(meta-analysis)
Science M, Johnstone J, Roth DE, Guyatt G, Loeb M
Zinc for the treatment of the common cold: a systematic review and
meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials
CMAJ 2012;184:E551-61
PubMed
DOI
PMC
See problems of the review:
e-Letter
Vitamin D and the common cold (RCT)
Murdoch DR, et al.
Effect of vitamin D3 supplementation on upper respiratory tract
infections in healthy adults: the VIDARIS randomized controlled trial.
JAMA 2012;308:1333-9
PubMed
DOI
Vitamin D and the common cold (RCT)
Camargo CA Jr, et al.
Randomized trial of vitamin d supplementation and risk of acute
respiratory infection in mongolia.
Pediatrics 2012;130:e561-7
PubMed
DOI
Vitamin D and the common cold (meta-analysis)
Charan J, et al.
Vitamin D for prevention of respiratory tract infections: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
J Pharmacol Pharmacother 2012;3:300-3
PMC
DOI
2013
