Vitamins and Minerals


by Harri Hemilä

Chapter in:  Common Cold (eds. Eccles & Weber) / Birkhauser published in 2009
Harri Hemilä
Department of Public Health
University of Helsinki,  Helsinki, Finland
harri.hemila@helsinki.fi
Home:  http://www.mv.helsinki.fi/home/hemila

This file:  http://www.mv.helsinki.fi/home/hemila/Birkhauser

Version Aug 28, 2015



Abstract of the chapter

Taking vitamins and minerals to fight the common cold is popular in western countries and thus it is important to find out whether or not they are effective. A large number of trials have found that regular vitamin C supplementation shortens the duration of colds, and is probably beneficial when administered therapeutically starting soon after the onset of symptoms. Zinc lozenges have reduced the duration of common cold symptoms when the total daily zinc doses were over 70 mg. Consequently, both vitamin C and zinc have the potential to become options for treating the common cold, but more research is needed to determine optimal doses and treatment strategies. The prophylactic effect of vitamins and minerals has also been examined in several trials. Vitamin C has no preventive effect in the general community, but may reduce the incidence of respiratory symptoms in restricted population groups such as people under acute physical stress and people with a particularly low dietary intake of vitamin C. There is no evidence that vitamin E supplementation prevents colds in middle-aged people. Nevertheless, the effects of vitamin E in elderly males have been found to be heterogeneous, and further studies are warranted in elderly people. β-Carotene has been promoted for improving the immune system, but there is no evidence that it is effective against colds. The use of multivitamin and multimineral combinations against respiratory tract infections in elderly people has been studied in a number of trials, but a nearly uniform lack of efficacy has been found. Vitamin D and folic acid have been constituents of multivitamin supplements, and the absence of benefits of these supplements implies that increasing the intake of vitamin D or folic acid in elderly people would not have substantial preventive effects against respiratory infections.



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Reference list with links to papers available through the net


This document contains links to the fulltexts or abstracts of the references that are available via the internet.
Some of the publications are located at publisher's pages and require permissions to be reached, but several are freely available.

This file will be updated so that new controlled trials and other relevant studies on the substances discussed in this chapter will be appended at the end of the file.

For a more extensive list of references to the vitamin C and the common cold trials, see references for the Cochrane Review (ref. 24 below). 

If you find errors in these links, such as an outdated address,
please inform: harri.hemila@helsinki.fi



Ref.
no.


1 Mäkelä (1998) J Clin Microbiol 36: 539

2 Syrjälä (1998) Clin Infect Dis 27: 358

3 Millen (2004) J Am Diet Assoc 104: 942

4 Pauling (1971) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 68: 2678     PubMedC
4 Manuscript  

5 Pauling (1971) Am J Clin Nutr 24: 1294

6 Cowan (1942) JAMA 120: 1268       OtherSource

7 Ritzel G (1961) [In German] Helv Med Acta 28: 63
7 Translation

8 Hess (1920) Scurvy: Past and Present
8 Digitalized version via Cornell Library (search book author=Hess)
8 Hess (1920) pages 88 and 99

9 Robertson (1934) Medicine 13: 190

10 Perla (1937) Part I. Arch Pathol 23: 543
10 Perla (1937) Part II. Arch Pathol 23: 683


11 Bourne (1949) Br J Nutr 2: 341

12 Glazebrook (1942) J Hygiene 42: 1    OtherSource
12 Comment in BMJ (1942)
12 Comment by Authors in BMJ (1942)

13 Hemilä (2007) J R Soc Med 100: 495
13 Manuscript

14 Hemilä (2006) Do vitamins C and E affect respiratory infections? pp 11-16, 35-51
14 Book version available at:   Amazon   Barnes & Noble  Foyles.co.uk   WHSmith.co.uk   Buchwelt.de  

15 Bartley (1953) p 43

16 Mason (1997) Chem Soc Rev 26: 29
16 PDF version
16 Links to other biographies on Linus Pauling

17 Pauling (1970) Vitamin C and the Common Cold
17 Available at: Alibris1  Alibris2  Alibris3
17 Available at: Amazon1  Amazon2  Amazon3
17 Available at: BarnesNoble
17 Links to book reviews
17 A short background to the book 

18 Pauling (1976) Vitamin C, the Common Cold, and the Flu
18 Available at: Alibris
18 Available at: Amazon
18 Available at: BarnesNoble1  BarnesNoble2  BarnesNoble3
18 Links to book reviews

19 Hemilä (1992) Br J Nutr 67: 3    OtherSource
19 Manuscript with links to the references

20 Himmelstein (1998) J Exercise Physiology online 1(2; July)    OtherSource

21 van Straten (2002) Adv Ther 19: 151

22 Hemilä (1997) Br J Nutr 77: 59    OtherSource
22 Manuscript with links to the references
22 discussion (1997) 78: 857
22 Manuscript of reply with links to the refrences

23 Briggs (1984) In: Recent Vitamin Research. pp 39-82

24 Hemilä (2007) Cochrane Database Syst Rev
24 HTML version
24 Summary of the Cochrane review in PloS Medicine
24 List of references with weblinks

25 Hemilä (1996) Int J Sports Med 17: 379
25 Manuscript with links to references

26 Hemilä (2004) Mil Med 169: 920   OtherSource

27 Peters (1993) Am J Clin Nutr 57: 170

28 Peters (1996) S Afr J Sports Med 11(March): 23

29 Moolla (1996) [MSc Thesis]

30 Sabiston (1974)


31 Anderson (2008) J Allergy Clin Immunol 122: 225
31 discussion: 2009; 123: 274

32 Schachter (1982) Ann Allergy 49: 146
32 PubMed abstract

33 Cohen (1997) Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 151: 367

34 Tecklenburg (2007) Respir Med 101: 1770

35 Charleston (1972) Lancet 299: 1401

36 Clegg (1975) Am J Clin Nutr 28: 973

37 Elwood (1976) Br J Prev Soc Med 30: 193
37 Elwood (1976)

38 Baird (1979) Am J Clin Nutr 32: 1686

39 Tyrrell (1977) Br J Prev Soc Med 31: 189
39 Tyrrell (1977)

40 Hemilä (2008) Respir Med 102: 625
40 Manuscript


41 Anderson (1972) Can Med Assoc J 107: 503
41 correction (1973) 108: 133
41 correction (1973) 108: 492

42 Anderson (1975) Can Med Assoc J 112: 823

43 Ludvigsson (1977) Scand J Infect Dis 9: 91  
 
44 Hemilä (1999) Med Hypotheses 52: 171
44 Manuscript with links to references

45 Coulehan (1974) N Engl J Med 290: 6    OtherSource

46 Bancalari (1984) [In Spanish] Rev Med Chil 112: 871
46 Translation

47 Karlowski (1975) JAMA 231: 1038
47 PubMed abstract

48 Hemilä (1996) J Clin Epidemiol 49: 1079
48 Manuscript with links to the references
48 Comments    Reply to the comments  Reply OtherSource
 

49 Hemilä (1997) Int J Vitam Nutr Res 67: 329
49 Manuscript with links to references
49 PubMed Abstract

50 Anderson (1974) Can Med Assoc J 111: 31


51 Padayatty (2004) Ann Intern Med 140: 533

52 Padayatty (2006) CMAJ 174: 937

53 Rivers (1987) Ann NY Acad Sci 498: 445
53 see also: Safety of Vitamin C: Urban Legends

54 Hathcock (2005) Am J Clin Nutr 81: 736

55 Gotzsche (1989) Lancet 2: 1039
55 Gotzsche refers to: Braenden 1973 ch (8 KB)   Braenden 1973 bm (47 KB)

56 Thomas (1978) Clin Exp Immunol 32: 370

57 Beisel (1982) Clin Nutr 35(Feb suppl): pp 423, 460 (this is a large file: 8 MB)

58 Gross (1980) Physiol Rev 60: 255, 290

59 Jariwalla (1996) Subcell Biochem 25: 215
59 View via Google

60 Webb (2007) Nutr Rev 65: 181


61 Akaike (1996) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93: 2448

62 Peterhans (1997) J Nutr 127: 962S

63 Akaike (2001) Rev Med Virol 11: 87

64 Snelgrove (2006) Eur J Immunol 36: 1364

65 Castro (2006) Am J Respir Crit Care Med 174: 1361

66 Hemilä (2006) Do vitamins C and E affect respiratory infections? pp 5-10, 105-131
66 Book version, see ref. 14
66 Chapters available as HTML texts:
66 Vitamin C and the immune system
66 Vitamin C metabolism during infections
66 Vitamin C and animal infections

67 Witt (1992) J Nutr 122: 766

68 Packer (1997) J Sports Sci 15: 353

69 Hemilä (1996) Nutrition 12: 804
69 Manuscript with links to references

70 Chalmers (1975) Am J Med 58: 532
70 PubMed abstract


71 Dykes (1975) JAMA 231: 1073    OtherSource
71 PubMed abstract

72 Hemilä (1995) J Am Coll Nutr 14: 116

73 Hemilä (2008) Chalmers' meta-analysis 1975

74 Hemilä (2008) The Dykes and Meier review 1975

75 Pauling (1976) Part I. Medical Tribune 17(12): 18

76 Pauling (1976) Part II. Medical Tribune 17(13): 37

77 Chalmers (1996) Dissent to the preceding article by H. Hemilä. J Clin Epidemiol 49: 1085

78 Hemilä (1996) To the dissent by Thomas Chalmers. J Clin Epidemiol 49: 1087
78 Manuscript

79 Hemilä (2008) The most influential trial on vitamin C and the common cold: Karlowski et al. 1975

80 Truswell (1986) N Engl J Med 315: 709   OtherSource


81 Kleijnen (1989) [in Dutch] Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 133: 1532
81 Translation to English

82 Hemilä (2008) Truswell’s mini-review 1986

83 Hemilä (2008) Kleijnen’s meta-analysis 1989

84 Hemilä (2008) Pauling's meta-analyses 1971a,b

85 Meydani (1995) Am J Clin Nutr 62: 1462S

86 Moriguchi (2000) Vitam Horm 59: 305
86 PubMed abstract

87 Baehner (1977) Blood 50: 327

88 Prasad (1980) Am J Clin Nutr 33: 606

89 Eckman (1976) Transact Assoc Am Physicians 89: 105
89 PubMed abstract

90 Taylor (1997) Infect Immun 65: 197


91 Garg (2004) Parasitology 129: 685

92 Graat (2002) JAMA 288: 715

93 Meydani (2004) JAMA 292: 828
93 correction (2004) 292: 1305
93 correction (2007) 297: 1882
93 discussion (2004) 292: 2834

94 Hemilä (2005) Am J Clin Nutr 82: 1141

95 Hamer (2004) JAMA 292: 2834

96 ATBC Study (1994) N Engl J Med 330: 1029
96 ATBC Study (1994) N Engl J Med 330: 1029
96 PDF version      Another report on the design of the ATBC Study

97 Hemilä (2002) Epidemiology 13: 32    PubMed

98 Hemilä (2006) J Am Coll Nutr 25: 332

99 Hemilä (2004) Chest 125: 557

100 Hemilä (2003) Med Sci Sports Exerc 35: 1815    PubMed


101 Hemilä (2006) Int J Sports Med 27: 336     PubMed

102 Bendich (1989) J Nutr 119: 112

103 Hughes (1999) Proc Nutr Soc 58: 713

104 Omenn (1998) Annu Rev Public Health 19: 73

105 Chandra RK (1992) Lancet 340: 1124
105 PubMed abstract
105 Chandra's paper has had a great impact; it has been cited over 340 times by July 2009 (Web of Science).
105 Documents discussing Chandra's fabrication can be reached through: Chandra

106 Carpenter (2003) Lancet 361: 2247

107 White (2004) BMJ 328: 67    BMJ server
107 correction (2004) 328: 257    BMJ server

108 Smith (2005) BMJ 331: 288   BMJ server

109 Chavance (1993) Int J Vitam Nutr Res 63: 11
109 PubMed abstract

110 Girodon (1997) Ann Nutr Metab 41: 98


111 Girodon (1999) Arch Intern Med 159: 748

112 Barringer (2003) Ann Intern Med 138: 365

113 Avenell (2005) BMJ 331: 324   OtherSource

114 Liu (2007) J Am Geriatr Soc 55: 35
114 correction (2007) 55: 478
114 discussion (2007) 55: 1311    OtherSource

115 Fischer Walker (2004) Annu Rev Nutr 24: 255

116 Aggarwal (2007) Pediatrics 119: 1120

117 Coles (2007) Am J Clin Nutr 86: 397

118 Kurugöl (2006) Acta Paediatr 95: 1175

119 Kurugöl (2007) Pediatr Int 49: 842

120 Eby (1984) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 25: 20
120 Eby (1984) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 25: 20
120 Eby (1984) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 25: 20

121 Prasad (2008) Mol Med 14: 353

122 Korant (1976) J Virol 18: 298
122 Korant (1976) J Virol 18: 298

123 Geist (1987) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 31: 622
123 Geist (1987) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 31: 622

124 Suara (2004) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 48: 783
124 Suara (2004) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 48: 783

125 Berg (2001) J Interferon Cytokine Res 21: 471

126 Novick (1996) Med Hypotheses 46: 295

127 Novick (1997) Med Hypotheses 49: 347


128 Godfrey (1988) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 32: 605
128 Godfrey (1988) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 32: 605

129 Eby (1988) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 32: 606
129 Eby (1988) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 32: 606

130 Martin (1988) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 32: 608
130 Martin (1988) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 32: 608

131 Eby (1997) J Antimicrob Chemother 40: 483
131 Eby (1997) J Antimicrob Chemother 40: 483
131 Eby (1997) J Antimicrob Chemother 40: 483

132 Bakar (1999) Chem Speciat Bioavail 11: 95
132 Abstract

133 Eby (2004) Biosci Rep 24: 23
133 Eby (2004) Biosci Rep 24: 23

134 Smith (1989) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 33: 646
134 Smith (1989) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 33: 646

135 Godfrey (1992) J Int Med Res 20: 234
135 PubMed abstract

136 Prasad (2008) J Infect Dis 197: 795
136 Prasad (2008) J Infect Dis 197: 795

137 Petrus (1998) Curr Ther Res 59: 595
137 Petrus (1998) Curr Ther Res 59: 595

138 Turner (2000) Clin Infect Dis 31: 1202
138 discussion in: 2001;32: 1520

139 Mossad (1996) Ann Intern Med 125: 81
139 PubMed

140 Prasad (2000) Ann Intern Med 133: 245
140 Prasad (2000) Ann Intern Med 133: 245

141 Douglas (1987) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 31: 1263
141 Douglas (1987) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 31: 1263
141 Douglas (1987) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 31: 1263

142 Macknin (1998) JAMA 279: 1962
142 PubMed abstract

143 Weismann (1990) Dan Med Bull 37: 279
143 PubMed abstract

144 Zarembo (1992) J Pharm Sci 81: 128
144 PubMed abstract

145 Al-Nakib (1987) J Antimicrob Chemother 20: 893
145 Al-Nakib (1987) J Antimicrob Chemother 20: 893
145 PubMed abstract
145 Another report of the same trial: (1991) J Psychopharmacology "Zinc [lozenges] removed the cold-induced performance impairment"
145 Another report of the same trial: (1991) J Psychopharmacology "Zinc [lozenges] removed the cold-induced performance impairment"

146 Farr (1987) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 31: 1183
146 Farr (1987) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 31: 1183
146 Farr (1987) Antimicrob Agents Chemother 31: 1183

147 Simkin PA (1976) Lancet 2: 539
147 PubMed abstract

148 Prasad (1978) JAMA 240: 2166
148 Prasad (1978) JAMA 240: 2166
148 PubMed abstract

149 Hoffman (1988) Gastroenterology 94: 508
149 PubMed abstract

150 Samman (1987) Med J Aust 146: 246
150 PubMed abstract
There are further reports than refs. 147-150 about therapeutic usage of high doses of zinc.
150 mg/day of zinc has been administered for therapeutic purposes over months, in some cases up to a few years:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4097278
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4097279
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4163308
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6019319
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1991851/
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1991648/
These papers did not report any important adverse effects of zinc in the doses used.


151 Jafek (2004) Am J Rhinol 18: 137
151 PubMed

152 Alexander (2006) Laryngoscope 116: 217
152 PubMed
152 discussion: (2006) 116: 1720
152 PubMed
152 discussion: (2006) 116: 1721
152 PubMed
152 discussion: (2006) 116: 1722


153 Jackson (1997) Arch Intern Med 157: 2373
153 PubMed

154 Jackson (2000) J Nutr 130(5S Suppl): 1512S
154 PubMed

155 Thompson (1994) BMJ 309: 1351    BMJ server

156 Caruso (2007) Clin Infect Dis 45: 569
156 see problems of the Caruso review: http://www.mv.helsinki.fi/home/hemila/H33.pdf

157 Chalmers (1981) Control Clin Trials 2: 31

158 Higgins (2008) Cochrane Handbook Sect 8.3.3.

159 Balk (2002) JAMA 287: 2973

160 Glasziou (2007) BMJ 334: 349    BMJ server


161 Eby (2008) Clin Infect Dis 46: 483

162 AMA (1987) JAMA 257: 1929
162 AMA (1987) JAMA 257: 1929
162 Extract

163 Caruso (2005) Clin Infect Dis 40: 807

164 Hemilä (2005) Clin Infect Dis 41: 762

165 Richards (1988) Soc Stud Sci 18: 653

166 Richards (1991) Vitamin C and Cancer: Medicine or Politics?
166 available at: Alibris  Amazon  BarnesNoble  InformaWorld
166 book review: Herxheimer (1991) BMJ
166 book review: Smith (1992) Postgrad Med J 68: 307

167 Galloway (1991) Nature 353: 125

168 Segerstråle (1992) Science 255: 613

169 Huxtable (1992) Trends Pharmacol Sci 13: 82

170 Goodwin (1998) Arch Intern Med 158: 2187
170 PubMed

171 Vandenbroucke (2001) Ann Intern Med 135: 507

172 Goodwin (1981) Persp Biol Med 31: 78
172 PubMed abstract

173 Goodwin (1984) JAMA 251: 2387   Extract

174 Barber (1961) Science 134: 596

175 Gonzales (1995) Lancet 345: 665






Trials and meta-analyses on the topics discussed in this chapter published after the book was published.

These new studies are not commented on here.
This is simply of list of the trials that have been published after the book.
This list is updated regularly, but not very frequently.

2009

Vitamin D and the common cold (RCT)
Li-Ng M, Aloia JF, Pollack S, Cunha BA, Mikhail M, Yeh J, Berbari N
A randomized controlled trial of vitamin D3 supplementation for the prevention of symptomatic upper respiratory tract infections.
Epidemiol Infect. 2009;137:1396-404
PubMed
DOI

Zinc and the common cold (RCT)
Vakili R et al.
Effects of Zinc Supplementation in Occurrence and Duration of Common Cold in School Aged Children during Cold Season: a Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Trial
Iranian J Medicine 2009;19:376-380
Publisher
Other source


2010


Zinc and the common cold (meta-analysis)
Eby GA 3rd
Zinc lozenges as cure for the common cold--a review and hypothesis.
Med Hypotheses. 2010;74:482-92.
PubMed
DOI
Other source

beta-Carotene and the common cold (RCT)
Hemilä H
The effect of β-carotene on common cold incidence is modified by age and smoking: evidence against a uniform effect in a nutrient–disease relationship
Nutrition and Dietary Supplements 2010;2:117-124
Link  


2011

Vitamin C and the common cold (RCT)

Constantini NW, Dubnov-Raz G, Eyal BB, Berry EM, Cohen AH, Hemilä H
The effect of vitamin C on upper respiratory infections in adolescent swimmers: a randomized trial.
Eur J Pediatr 2011;170:59-63
PubMed
DOI

Zinc and the common cold (meta-analysis)
Singh M, Das RR
Zinc for the common cold
Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011:CD001364
DOI
Cochrane
See problems of the review:
Feedback

Zinc and the common cold (meta-analysis)
Hemilä H
Zinc Lozenges May Shorten the Duration of Colds: a Systematic Review
Open Respir Med J 2011;5:51-8
Publisher 
PMC 


2012

Zinc and the common cold (meta-analysis)
Science M, Johnstone J, Roth DE, Guyatt G, Loeb M
Zinc for the treatment of the common cold: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials
CMAJ 2012;184:E551-61
PubMed
DOI
PMC
See problems of the review:
e-Letter


Vitamin D and the common cold (RCT)
Murdoch DR, et al.
Effect of vitamin D3 supplementation on upper respiratory tract infections in healthy adults: the VIDARIS randomized controlled trial.
JAMA 2012;308:1333-9
PubMed
DOI

Vitamin D and the common cold (RCT)
Camargo CA Jr, et al.
Randomized trial of vitamin d supplementation and risk of acute respiratory infection in mongolia.
Pediatrics 2012;130:e561-7
PubMed
DOI
  
Vitamin D and the common cold (meta-analysis)
Charan J, et al.
Vitamin D for prevention of respiratory tract infections: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
J Pharmacol Pharmacother 2012;3:300-3
PMC
DOI


2013




 

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